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- 阅书斋 · Vol. 017 -
《如何提升学生的学习能力》
- 推荐理由 -
思辨能力的高下将决定一个人学业的优劣、事业的成败乃至一个民族的兴衰。在此意义上，我向全国中小学教师、高等学校教师和学生以及社会大众郑重推荐“思想者指南系列丛书”。相信该套丛书的普及阅读和学习运用，必将有利于促进教育改革，提高人才培养质量，提升大众思辨能力，为创新型国家建设和社会文明进步作出深远的贡献。
——孙有中
本期阅书斋将摘录双语读物《思想者指南系列丛书》教学篇之《如何提升学生的学习能力》其中的5个建议，为教师有效提升学生的思辨能力提供参考和借鉴。
《如何提升学生的学习能力》是《思想者指南系列丛书》中的一册。如果您还想了解更多的教学建议，在微信公众号“中阅院播种阅读“该篇文章中，点击“阅读原文”，即可获取购买链接～
引言
Introduction
当学生能对课程内容进行思考时，他们便掌握了我们所教授课程中最基本的原则和概念。本书中的教学理念均以此为前提。我们提供的大部分建议是可能会有效果的教学策略。它们都基于批判性思维教学理念和对典型问题进行的分析，这些问题大多来自传统的讲座、小测验、考试等教学环节。我们基于以下两个前提开始本书的编写：
1. 要学好一门课，学生必须掌握这门课程的核心思想；
2. 我们作为教师，要设计课堂活动并布置作业，要求学生积极思考这门课程中的概念和原则。
在尝试学习更高级别的概念之前，学生应首先掌握基本的概念和原则。如果教师在课堂上着重帮助学生提高基础能力，那么我们相信大多数教学目标都会得以实现。
教师可自行决定在课堂上试用本书中的哪些建议，也只有教师自己能决定如何教自己的学生。我们的目的不是对教师发号施令，而是为教师提供可行性教学策略，以供教师试用。本书给出的教学建议均是我们为自己的学生研制并经过检验的方法和策略。教师需要自行判断它们的合理性并检测它们的实用性。对于有效（例如能改善教学）的方法，请保留；对于那些不奏效的方法，请直接放弃或重新设计。
这些建议有重合的地方，我们应将它们整合在一起，视作一个相互联系的网络。通常情况下，要先读两个或三个其他的建议，才能理解某个建议。所以，如果你对某个建议不太理解，请继续往后阅读。每个建议的优势或作用，在通过其他建议的反复论证后，将会变得越来越明显。
When students think within the content of our courses, they take ownership of the most basic principles and concepts within the subjects we teach. The instructional ideas in this guide are premised in this understanding. Most of our suggestions represent possible teaching strategies. They are based on a vision of instruction implied by critical thinking and an analysis of the weaknesses typically found in most traditional didactic lecture/quiz/test formats of instruction. We begin with two premises:
· that to learn a subject well, students must master the thinking that defines that subject, and
· that we, in turn, as their instructors, must design activities and assignments that require students to think actively within the concepts and principles of the subject.
Students should master fundamental concepts and principles before they attempt to learn more advanced concepts. If class time is focused on helping students perform well on these foundational activities, we feel confident that the goals of most instruction will be achieved.
It is up to you, the instructor, to decide which of these ideas you will test in the classroom. Only you can decide how to teach your students. Our goal is not to dictate to you, but to provide you with possible strategies with which to experiment. The specific suggestions we recommend represent methods and strategies we have developed and tested with our students. Judge for yourself their plausibility. Test them for their practicality. Those that work (i.e., improve instruction), keep; those that do not work, abandon or re-design.
The suggestions overlap each other and make most sense when taken together, as an interrelated network. Often one suggestion is made intelligible in the light of two or three others. So if one is not clear to you, read on. The strength of each of them, in re-enforcing each other, will then become increasingly clear.
推荐的设计思路
Recommended Design Features
建议1
设计教学以便学生在日常实践中内化和应用所学概念，并自我评估对每个概念的理解程度。
学生如果想要掌握某个新的概念，他们必须首先将其内化，然后用它去解决问题，这样他们才能明白理解此概念的价值所在。与此同时，他们也需要对所学概念的内化和应用程度作出评估。
如果学生想要掌握知识和技能，那么我们需要给他们提供很多机会，以便他们：
1. 内化这门课的核心概念；
2. 应用所学概念解决生活中或课程作业中的问题。
只有当学生能在实际生活中应用他们所学的知识来解决问题时，他们才会知道所学知识的价值。也只有当他们了解了所学知识的价值，他们才会发自内心地去学习。
学生一方面需要内化所学概念并通过有意义的方式应用这些概念，同时，他们也应当练习如何评估自己的学习成果。对受过教育的人来说，自我评价是其思维模式中的有机组成部分。如果一个人不会评估自己的思维，那么我们很难说他在思考问题时像一个受过教育的人。同样，如果某个学生不知道如何评估自己的学习成果，就很难说他学好了这门课。
高质量的思考来源于
将理论内化并加以应用的日常实践
Idea 1
Design instruction so that students engage in routine practice in internalizing and applying the concepts they are learning (and in evaluating their understanding of each.)
For students to learn any new concept well they must first internalize the concept, then apply the concept to a problem or issue so that they come to see the value of understanding the concept. At the same time, they need to evaluate how well they are internalizing and applying the concepts they are learning.
If students are to acquire understandings and skills, we need to provide many opportunities for them to
1. internalize the key concepts in the subject, and to
2. apply those concepts to problems and issues (in their lives or in their course-work).
It is only when students apply what they are learning to actual situations or problems that they come to see the value in what they are learning. And only when they see the value in learning the content will they be internally motivated to do so.
At the same time students are internalizing concepts and applying them in a meaningful way, they need practice in evaluating their work. Self-assessment is an integral part of educated thinking; it would be unintelligible to say of a person that he is thinking in an educated manner, but is not skilled in evaluating his thinking. In the same way, it would be unintelligible to say of a student that he is learning a subject well but does not know how to evaluate his learning.
High quality thinking comes
with routine practice in
internalizing and applying
theoretical structures
日常教学重点
Daily Emphasis
建议2
明确鼓励学生思考自己的思维方式。
教学时应为学生提供具体的建议和指导。因为很多学生没有养成良好的阅读和倾听习惯，他们不会自觉地要求自己像真正的学习者一样有效地思考，也几乎不问问题，甚至不会解释自己在学习过程中运用的思维方式．所以他们中大多数人的思维往往只是短期记忆（死记硬背）。因此，我们建议教师与学生进行讨论，告诉学生如何思考才能掌握教师所教授的内容。
教师应该强调依靠死记硬背和突击学习来应付考试的危害性，并应在第一节课就告诉学生：对课程内容进行思考是这门课的重点，也是课堂学习的重要环节。
Idea 2
Encourage students to think —— quite explicitly —— about their thinking.
Give them specific suggestions for how to go about it. For example, most students left to themselves do not think very effectively as learners. Many have poor reading and listening habits. Most rarely ask questions. Most could not explain the thinking they are using in the learning process. Much of their thinking turns out to be short-term memorization (rote learning). We suggest that you discuss with students the kind of thinking they need to do to master the content you are teaching.
You should point out to students the danger of relying on rote memorization and periodic cramming as a way to try to pass the course. You should tell the students on the first class day that thinking through the content is the key agenda in the course and that this task will be the business of the class.
建议3
使用能促进学生主动学习的教学策略。
在上课期间使用以下策略以确保学生积极地思考课程内容。应该常规性地要求学生：
1. 用自己的话总结老师或同学说过的内容。
2. 详细阐述已讲内容。
3. 将已讲问题或内容与自己的知识和经验相联系。
4. 举例说明或佐证老师和同学说过的内容。
5. 建立相关概念之间的联系。
6. 用自己的话重新表述指令或任务。
7. 陈述需要解决的问题。
8. 描述自己对某个问题的看法与老师、其他同学或（教材）作者的有多么的不同或相似。
9. 花几分钟时间将上述问题的答案写下来。
10. 写下自己认为当前最紧迫的问题。老师随后使用上述技巧帮助学生对这些问题进行推理。
11. 与学习伙伴讨论上述任何一个问题，然后参与由老师组织的小组讨论。
Idea 3
Use tactics that encourage active learning.
Use the following tactics during class to ensure that students are actively engaged in thinking about the content. They should be routinely called upon to:
1. Summarize in their own words what the teacher or a student has said.
2. Elaborate on what has been said.
3. Relate the issue or content to their own knowledge and experience.
4. Give examples to clarify or support what they have said.
5. Make connections between related concepts.
6. Restate the instructions or assignment in their own words.
7. State the question at issue.
8. Describe to what extent their point of view on the issue is different from or similar to the point of view of the instructor, other students, the author, etc.
9. Take a few minutes to put the above responses into written form.
10. Write down the most pressing question on their mind at this point. The instructor then uses the above tactics to help students reason through the questions.
11. Discuss any of the above with a partner and then participate in a group discussion facilitated by the instructor.
建议4
定期向学生提问以探究学生对课程内容的理解程度。
向学生提问的问题如下：
1. 重点关注目的：本章的目的是什么？这一系统的主要功能是什么？
2. 重点关注问题：在思考这一问题时，你的脑海中会有什么样的疑问？本章的关键问题是什么？ 本章中这一小节的关键问题又是什么？
3. 重点关注信息：作者使用了什么信息才得出这些结论？我们如何核实这些信息的准确性？
4. 重点关注推论：根据本章所提供的信息，我们可以得出哪些合乎逻辑的结论？作者得出的结论是什么？基于现有证据，这些结论是否合理？能否给出比专家们的结论更合理的阐释？
5. 重点关注假设：这些作者在对这一问题进行推理时作出了哪些想当然的假设？对于这些假设我们应该认可还是质疑？
6. 重点关注概念：本章（或整本教材）中的关键概念是什么？你如何阐述自己对这些讨论过的概念的理解？
7. 重点关注影响：假如作者将批判性思维概念化的方式是正确的，学习批判性思考会给你的生活带来哪些影响？如果没有学习呢？
8. 重点关注视角：本章中作者关注的重点是什么？作者如何看待它？
点名让学生回答问题时不要让他们感到紧张，你可以友好一些。这样的话学生就会接受这种方式并将其融入学习过程。我们目前还没有发现其他更好的教授批判性倾听的策略。当我们向学生介绍这种方法时，我们要提醒他们：我们关注的是他们思维的发展，并不是想用这种方法恐吓他们，也不会让他们在同伴面前显得无知。随后，我们会向他们解释实施这一过程的目的——为了帮助他们提高批判性倾听能力，从而成为更高效的倾听者。
Idea 4
Routinely ask questions that probe student understanding of the content.
Questions such as:
1. Focusing on purpose: What is the purpose of this chapter? What is the principal function of this system?
2. Focusing on question: What questions are emerging for you as we think our way through this issue? What is the key question in this chapter? What is the key question in this section of the chapter?
3. Focusing on information: What information did the authors use in coming to these conclusions? How can we check to see if this information is accurate?
4. Focusing on inference: What can we logically conclude based on the information presented in this chapter? What conclusions did the authors come to? Were these conclusions justified given the evidence? Is there a more reasonable interpretation of the evidence than the conclusions these “experts” have come to?
5. Focusing on assumptions: What do these authors take for granted in reasoning through this issue? Should we accept these assumptions or question them?
6. Focusing on concepts: What are the key concepts presented in the chapter (or in the textbook as a whole)? How would you elaborate your understanding of the concepts we have been discussing?
7. Focusing on implications: If the authors are correct in the way they conceptualize critical thinking, what are some implications for your life if you learn to think critically? And if you don't?
8. Focusing on point-of-view: What are the authors focused upon in this chapter, and how are they seeing it?
Calling on students needs not be intimidating. It can be done in a “non-threatening” fashion. Students then come to accept it as part of the process of learning. We have found no better strategy for teaching critical listening. When we introduce students to this method, we remind them that we are concerned with the development of their thinking, and that we are not using this approach to intimidate them or make them appear ignorant in front of their friends. We then explain the purpose of the process — which is of course to help them improve their critical listening abilities, to be more effective listeners.
建议5
将认知标准引入日常课堂活动。
要注意运用认知标准来评估思维，这一点至关重要。大多数学生对于评估思维的标准知之甚少。因此，很有必要将认知标准引入日常课堂活动。指导学生对思维进行评估的一个方法是定期向学生提问，要求他们在评估思维时运用以下认知标准：
· 我不清楚你的立场。你能换句话表达吗？（清晰性）
· 你能表达得更准确一些吗？（准确性）
· 如何确保你使用的信息是精确的？（精确性）
· 你所说的和这一问题有何关联？（相关性）
· 能否阐述你是如何考虑这一问题中的复杂情况的？（深刻性）
· 你可以阐述一下针对这个问题的其他合理的看法吗？（宽广性）
· 和你之前的阐释相比，有没有逻辑更严密的阐释？（逻辑性）
· 在处理这一问题时，你是否将注意力放在最重要的事项上？（重要性）
Idea 5
Bring intellectual standards into daily use.
Intellectual standards are essential to the assessment of thinking. Most students cannot name a single standard they use to assess thinking. It is therefore important to bring intellectual standards into daily classroom activities. One way to move in this direction is to routinely ask students questions that require them to apply intellectual standards to their thinking:
· I'm not clear about your position. Could you state it in other words? (clarity)
· Could you be more precise? (precision)
· How can we check to see if the information you are using is accurate? (accuracy)
· How is what you are saying relevant to the question on the floor? (relevance)
· Can you articulate how you have considered the complexities in the issue? (depth)
· Can you articulate other reasonable ways of looking at the issue? (breadth)
· Is there a more logical interpretation than the one you have articulated? (logic)
· Have you focused on the most significant issue in dealing with this problem? (significance)
《如何提升学生的学习能力》是《思想者指南系列丛书》中的一册。如果您还想了解更多的教学建议，在微信公众号“中阅院播种阅读“该篇文章中，点击“阅读原文”，即可获取购买链接～
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